Albert C. Baugh ألبرت بوف فى كتابه " تاريخ اللغة الأنجليزية " بيقول الأتى :
The Norman conquest made English for two centuries the language mainly of the lower classes while the nobles and those associated with them used French in almost all occasions ..
الكلام ده مع بداية الألف التانية بعد الميلاد 1096 , وبالتالى مكنش غريب ما يذكر عن ريتشارد قلب الأسد وهو مش بعيد عن الفترة دى 1189 انه مكنش بيتكلم أنجليزى وكانت لغته أقرب للفرنسية ..
Baugh , A. C.,A history of the English language , ( New York 1935 ) pp. 92-96 .
كان هناك بعض التأثيرات الرومانية من خلال
اللغة اللاتينية على لغة الكلتيين " السكان الأصليين " لأنجلترا فعلى سبيل
المثال مقطع شيستر Ceaster من الكلمة اللاتينية Castra بمعنى قلعة , حيث
أن معظم تلك النماذج كانت فى الأصل موقع لمعسكرات رومانية مثل /
Chester , Manchester , Worcester ...
أيضا كلمة Port من الأصل اللاتينى Portus ..
Baugh , A. C.,A history of the English language , ( New York 1935 ) pp. 92-96 .
3. Growth and Decay.
Moreover, English, like all other languages, is subject to that constant growth and decay that characterize all forms of life. It is a convenient figure of speech to speak of languages as living and as dead. Although we rarely think of language as something that possesses life apart from the people who speak it, as we can think of plants or of animals, we can observe in speech something like the process of change that characterizes the life of living things.
When a language ceases to change, we call it a dead language. Classical
Latin is a dead language because it has not changed for nearly 2,000 years. The change that is constantly going on in a living language can be most easily seen in the vocabulary.
Chester , Manchester , Worcester ...
أيضا كلمة Port من الأصل اللاتينى Portus ..
Baugh , A. C.,A history of the English language , ( New York 1935 ) pp. 92-96 .
3. Growth and Decay.
Moreover, English, like all other languages, is subject to that constant growth and decay that characterize all forms of life. It is a convenient figure of speech to speak of languages as living and as dead. Although we rarely think of language as something that possesses life apart from the people who speak it, as we can think of plants or of animals, we can observe in speech something like the process of change that characterizes the life of living things.
When a language ceases to change, we call it a dead language. Classical
Latin is a dead language because it has not changed for nearly 2,000 years. The change that is constantly going on in a living language can be most easily seen in the vocabulary.
Old words die out, new words are added, and existing words change their
meaning. Much of the vocabulary of Old English has been lost, and the
development of new words to meet new conditions is one of the most
familiar phenomena of our language. Change of meaning can be illustrated
from any page of Shakespeare.
Nice in Shakespeare’s day meant foolish; rheumatism signified a cold in the head. Less familiar but no less real is the change of pronunciation. A slow but steady alteration, especially in the vowel sounds, has characterized English throughout its history. Old English stān has become our stone; cū has become cow. Most of these changes are so regular as to be capable of classification under what are called “sound laws.” Changes likewise occur in the grammatical forms of a language. These may be the result of gradual phonetic modification, or they may result from the desire for uniformity commonly felt where similarity of function or use is involved. The person who says I knowed is only trying to form the past tense of this verb after the pattern of the past tense of so many verbs in English. This process is known as the operation of analogy, and it may affect the sound
and meaning as well as the form of words. Thus it will be part of our task to trace the influences that are constantly at work, tending to alter a language from age to age as spoken and written, and that have brought about such an extensive alteration in English as to make the English language of 1000 quite unintelligible to English speakers of 2000.
Baugh , A. C.,A history of the English language , ( New York 1935 ) pp. 92-96 .
In the course of centuries of this practice English has built up an unusual capacity for assimilating outside elements.
We do not feel that there is anything “foreign” about the words chipmunk, hominy, moose, raccoon, and skunk, all of which we have borrowed from the Native American.
We are not conscious that the words brandy, cruller, landscape, measles, uproar, and wagon are from Dutch.And so with many other words in daily use.
From Italian come balcony, canto, duet, granite, opera, piano, umbrella, volcano; from Spanish, alligator, cargo, contraband, cork, hammock, mosquito, sherry, stampede, tornado, vanilla; ..
from Greek, directly or indirectly, acme, acrobat, anthology, barometer, catarrh, catastrophe, chronology, elastic, magic, tactics, tantalize, and a host of others; from Russian, steppe, vodka, ruble, troika, glasnost, perestroika; from Persian, caravan, dervish, divan, khaki, mogul, shawl, sherbet, and ultimately from Persian jasmine, paradise, check, chess, lemon, lilac, turban, borax, and possibly spinach.
A few minutes spent in the examination of any good etymological dictionary will show that English has borrowed from Hebrew and Arabic, Hungarian, Hindi-Urdu, Bengali, Malay, Chinese, the languages of Java, Australia, Tahiti, Polynesia, West Africa, and from one of the aboriginal languages of Brazil. And it has assimilated these heterogeneous elements so successfully that only the professional student of language is aware of their origin.
Nice in Shakespeare’s day meant foolish; rheumatism signified a cold in the head. Less familiar but no less real is the change of pronunciation. A slow but steady alteration, especially in the vowel sounds, has characterized English throughout its history. Old English stān has become our stone; cū has become cow. Most of these changes are so regular as to be capable of classification under what are called “sound laws.” Changes likewise occur in the grammatical forms of a language. These may be the result of gradual phonetic modification, or they may result from the desire for uniformity commonly felt where similarity of function or use is involved. The person who says I knowed is only trying to form the past tense of this verb after the pattern of the past tense of so many verbs in English. This process is known as the operation of analogy, and it may affect the sound
and meaning as well as the form of words. Thus it will be part of our task to trace the influences that are constantly at work, tending to alter a language from age to age as spoken and written, and that have brought about such an extensive alteration in English as to make the English language of 1000 quite unintelligible to English speakers of 2000.
Baugh , A. C.,A history of the English language , ( New York 1935 ) pp. 92-96 .
In the course of centuries of this practice English has built up an unusual capacity for assimilating outside elements.
We do not feel that there is anything “foreign” about the words chipmunk, hominy, moose, raccoon, and skunk, all of which we have borrowed from the Native American.
We are not conscious that the words brandy, cruller, landscape, measles, uproar, and wagon are from Dutch.And so with many other words in daily use.
From Italian come balcony, canto, duet, granite, opera, piano, umbrella, volcano; from Spanish, alligator, cargo, contraband, cork, hammock, mosquito, sherry, stampede, tornado, vanilla; ..
from Greek, directly or indirectly, acme, acrobat, anthology, barometer, catarrh, catastrophe, chronology, elastic, magic, tactics, tantalize, and a host of others; from Russian, steppe, vodka, ruble, troika, glasnost, perestroika; from Persian, caravan, dervish, divan, khaki, mogul, shawl, sherbet, and ultimately from Persian jasmine, paradise, check, chess, lemon, lilac, turban, borax, and possibly spinach.
A few minutes spent in the examination of any good etymological dictionary will show that English has borrowed from Hebrew and Arabic, Hungarian, Hindi-Urdu, Bengali, Malay, Chinese, the languages of Java, Australia, Tahiti, Polynesia, West Africa, and from one of the aboriginal languages of Brazil. And it has assimilated these heterogeneous elements so successfully that only the professional student of language is aware of their origin.
Baugh , A. C.,A history of the English language , ( New York 1935 ) ..
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